If a line with letters having long upstrokes (literature, hostile, latter, &c.) follows one without long down strokes (never, miner, memoir, &c.) the lines must come a little closer than when a line having long down strokes (poppy, Ganges, &c.) comes over one having long upstrokes. In this respect the binder is in a more difficult position than the printer, as the latter need give no attention to this, his title never being so cramped into little space.

The effectiveness of a leather back can be considerably heightened by evenly smoothing and polishing the title panel with a burnisher. Such a back with the title panel enclosed within a square with only a fine double line at the head and tail and also a fine line close to the head is perhaps the best that an ordinary bookbindery can produce. It is essential, however, that every detail should be faultlessly executed, especially the title.

Tooling a square is frequently done. The beginner should always use the roll for this, although tool makers produce line pieces for the work. It is easier to print straight with the roll than with the line pieces, which require skill to use. Special attention should be given to joining at corners, so that neither gaps nor overlapping are seen.

For the rest we have given a number of different designs of backs as well as a few richly tooled half-calf bindings, and also two specimens of highly ornamented insides.

The head and tail and edges are often decorated in higher class work. Of course the style of finishing is very limited on account of the smallness of the surface. Fillets and rolls are generally used for this work being worked on the cap as seen in the illustrations, and always directed towards a central point. The gold for the head and tail and edges is cut to size on the cushion, the edges slightly greased, and the gold taken up by the book itself.

The accompanying illustrations give suggestions for the gilding of edges.

Lining is done on almost all books. For this the" jigger" is used. It is heated so that it hisses slightly, and with one quick and sure movement is drawn along the straight edge.

The line is drawn away from the worker, that is, contrarily to the way one would draw a line with a lead pencil. Lines are drawn along paper, past back and corners, often also right round the edge, over leather or cloth and cover; the closer to the edge the more effective the line.

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